Vývoj motorov sa neustále zrýchľuje

Z motora sa stáva čoraz zložitejší a náročnejší stroj, kde musia spolupracovať mechanické aj elektronické systémy. V súčasnosti je v prevádzke viac ako 1 miliarda cestných motorových vozidiel a viac ako 1,6 miliardy motocyklov. Každý z týchto dopravných prostriedkov ženie vpred motor.

 ford t by novell

Keď v roku 1908 vyšiel do ulíc prvý ľudový automobil, Ford Model T, jeho štvorvalcový motor s objemom 2,9 litra dosahoval výkon 22 koní (16,4 kW). Jeho omnoho mladší príbuzný, Ford Focus z roku 2012 zreteľne ukazuje, kam sa motory za storočie posunuli. Focus disponoval trojvalcovým agregátom EcoBoost s objemom jeden liter a výkonom 125 koní (92 kW). „Dnešný motor sa zmestí do bežného cestovného kufra. Znižovanie veľkosti, tzv. downsizing je viditeľný na všetkých komponentoch vozidla, motor nevynímajúc. Pozoruhodné však je, ako s menším objemom dokážeme dodať oveľa vyšší výkon,” všíma si doc. Ján Lešinský, ktorý vývoju automobilového priemyslu zasvätil celý život.

Nové materiály

Motory dneška nie sú len menšie, ale aj značne ľahšie. „Je to vďaka tomu, že namiesto ocele sa na bloky a hlavy motora začal používať hliník,“ hovorí Ján Lešinský. „Táto zmena prispela k zníženiu hmotnosti motora a tým aj auta, zlepšeniu ovládateľnosti aj nižšej spotrebe paliva. Na druhej strane, hliník má vyššie nároky na chladenie.“
Znižovanie veľkosti motora postihol aj kráľovskú kategóriu motošportu, formulu 1. Objem motorov sa postupne znížil z 3-litrových motorov v roku 1995 na šesťvalcové 1,6-litrové, používané v súčasnosti.
Zaujímavým vývojom prešiel priemerný zdvihový objem nových automobilov registrovaných v Európe. Od roku 1989 do roku 2004 stúpol z 1,6 litra na 1,75 litra. Do roku 2016 sa však vrátil späť na hodnoty zo začiatku 90- tych rokov, už spomínaných 1,6 litra. Podstatnou zásluhou je prepĺňanie väčšiny motorov, vstrekovanie paliva a už spomínaný downsizing – to umožnilo udržať trend zvyšovania priemerného výkonu, ale aj tzv. litrového výkonu zo 40 na 60 kW.

Prichádza koniec diesela?

Aj vďaka zníženiu obsahu síry v nafte z 550ppm na 5ppm, sa od 90. rokov na európskom kontinente zvýšil podiel novo registrovaných automobilov so vznetovým motorom z 10 % až na 50 % v roku 2011 (v niektorých štátoch až 70 %). V súčasnosti má až 40 % áut v európskom priestore vznetový motor (ACEA, 2014).

Keď v roku 2006 vyhrala značka Audi vôbec prvýkrát so vznetovým motorom preteky Le Mans, všetkým ukázala, v čom je čaro tohto paliva - vyššia účinnosť a nižšia spotreba. Odvtedy sa v Le Mans začalo objavovať čoraz viac áut so vznetovým motorom. Zdá sa , že diesel však svoju pozíciu pomaly stráca. V minulom roku tvoril ich podiel na celkových predajoch v Európe menej ako polovicu. Ide o najslabší výsledok od roku 2011 (ACEA, 2016).

Nástup softvéru

Dnešní vývojári radi hovoria, že automobil sa čochvíľa stane kopou softvéru s trochou hardvéru. To sa týka aj sveta motorov. Tie súčasné pracujú inteligentnejšie a úspornejšie ako kedykoľvek predtým. Napríklad v osemvalcovom motore pred niekoľkými rokmi pracovali všetky valce bez ohľadu na to, či auto zrýchľuje alebo ide stálou rýchlosťou. Dnes technológie umožňujú „nepotrebné“ valce vypínať a zapnúť ich len v prípade potreby.
Vstrekovanie paliva nahradil karburátor. Je to efektívnejšie a úspornejšie zariadenie, riadené pomocou riadiacej jednotky, ktorá s ohľadom na režim jazdy, prevádzkové parametre teplôt, tlakov a zloženia plynov okamžite koriguje potrebné nastavenie vstrekovaných dávok do jednotlivých valcov, t.j. spresňuje chod motora nielen tlakom na plynový pedál (ako to je pri karburátore). Cieľ je minimálna spotreba a minimálne emisie.

Vo svete motorov sme za ostatných 20 rokov zažili nástup prémiových aj vysoko oktánových palív.

1996 – Mitsubishi ohlásilo návrat priameho vstrekovania do benzínových motorov. V tomto roku ho prvýkrát uviedli na japonskom trhu v modeli Galant. Do Európy sa dostal o rok neskôr, v modeli Carisma.
1997 – Prvým európskym výrobcom áut, ktorý spustil sériovú výrobu auta s hybridným pohonom bolo Audi s modelom A4 Duo.
1997 – Toyota Prius s 1,5 litrovým motorom bolo prvé sériovo vyrábané auto s hybridným pohonom na svete. Odvtedy je aj najpredávanejším hybridom na svete.
1999 – Na slovenskom trhu sa objavilo prvé prémiové palivo Shell V-Power. Slovensko patrilo medzi prvé krajiny na svete, kde mohli zákazníci toto výkonné palivo tankovať.

Fenomén výkonu

Súčasné osobné automobily sú rýchlejšie a výkonnejšie ako pretekárske špeciály spred pár desaťročí. Tento posun sa prejavil aj v palive, ktoré si bežní vodiči môžu teraz natankovať.
2001 – Slovenskí motoristi mohli prvýkrát natankovať sto oktánové výkonné palivo Shell V-Power Racing. Palivo bolo vyvíjané a testované na pretekárskych okruhoch formule 1 v spolupráci s tímom Scuderia Ferrari.
2001 – Víťazom ankety Medzinárodný motor roka sa stalo BMW s motorom S54, ktorý bol montovaný v legendárnom BMW M3 E46.
2006 – Prvýkrát v histórii Le Mans zvíťazilo auto so vznetovým motorom. Bolo to Audi R10 TDI. Odvtedy sa v Le Mans začalo objavovať čoraz viac áut so vznetovým motorom, pretože majú vyššiu účinnosť využitia tepelnej energie a tak nižšiu spotrebu paliva. Odpoveďou Shell na rastúce nároky vznetových motorov bolo prvé prémiové dieselové palivo Shell V-Power Diesel.

shel bmw 1200x800

Fenomén downsizingu

Motory s čoraz menším objemom a veľkosťou (tzv. downsizing) musia podávať rovnaký alebo väčší výkon ako predtým. Sú preto aj vystavené omnoho náročnejším podmienkam, ako kedykoľvek predtým. Tomuto trendu sa prispôsobuje aj zloženie palív.
2012 – Ford začal vyrábať automobily s motorom Ecoboost, symbolom downsizingu. Jeho najmenší zdvihový objem bol 1 liter a mal 3 valce. V rokoch 2012 a 2014 s ním získal medzinárodné ocenenie Motor roka, čo sa doteraz nepodarilo žiadnemu výrobcovi.
2017 – Menšie motory menia aj podmienky pre fungovanie paliva, ktoré je, napríklad, vstrekované pri tlaku až 2 000 barov. Nová generácia palív Shell s DYNAFLEX technológiou sa prispôsobila tomuto trendu.

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    Hydroquinone Dos and Don'ts: Expert Tips



    # The Dos And Don'ts Of Incorporating Hydroquinone Into Your Skin-Care Routine

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    For optimal muscle activation and reduced risk of damage, maintain a gradual pace and give consideration to breathing rhythmically throughout every repetition. Pull the
    handles together in entrance of you, specializing in squeezing your chest muscles throughout
    the movement. Lengthen your arms totally in entrance of you whereas sustaining management,
    then slowly return to the starting position. Transitioning from the Cable Incline Fly, let’s explore
    the Cable Incline Fly on a stability ball.
    This is probably due to to the added inner rotation through the movement which is one other primary perform of the
    decrease chest and it also offers my core a good workout. The standing decline press, also referred to
    as High To Low Chest Press, uses a downward pressing movement to 
    emphasize the lower chest. Resistance bands are an inexpensive and versatile method to work, and they're used to focus on all the major muscle teams in your chest.
    You can follow diamond push-ups by bringing your arms too shut together
    to kind a diamond or triangle form under your chest.
    If you’ve mastered common pushups and want to target your muscular tissues somewhat in one other
    way, Broad push-ups are an excellent option. Machine pullovers work the hard-to-reach inner chest and upper again muscular
    tissues. They additionally provide greater comfort and management
    than traditional pullovers.
    One of the primary benefits of cable chest exercises is the continuous pressure they maintain throughout the whole motion. Subsequent time you’re
    at a crowded fitness center and your plan is thwarted as a
    end result of all the dumbbells and bench press racks are taken up, don’t overlook the cable machines.
    They present a great, full range of movement and midline stabilization experience.
    This article is dedicated to informing you all about the most effective chest exercises that you are able to
    do on the cable machine. You may also find an example cable chest workout so that you simply
    can check out in your next chest day.
    Free-weight shoulder workouts may help you build shoulder
    power and muscle mass. Nevertheless, you need cable exercises for overall development and constructing 3D shoulders.
    As a end result, you’re not simply lifting weights; you’re sculpting your chest with precision that only cables can provide.
    With progressive overload and correct approach, these
    workout routines will help remodel your higher body into
    a powerhouse of both kind and practical capability.
    But yet one more examine checked out chest activation throughout flat,
    30-degree incline, 45-degree incline, and 15-degree decline
    barbell presses.
    Otherwise, he stated to place an incline bench, which can offer
    more stability. Another profit supplied by cable machines is the side of a unique range of
    motion. You’re not simply pushing or pulling weight vertically or
    horizontally – rather, your body adopts varied positions permitting a three-dimensional
    execute, fine-tuning your muscles’ development. Cable machines are a
    fantastic tool that will assist you achieve your fitness targets.
    They supply a unique vary of motion that’s hard to duplicate with free weights, making them best for sculpting that excellent pec definition. Integrate
    the Cable Standing Chest Press into your chest coaching routine to diversify your workouts and
    stimulate muscle progress. Modify the cable resistance to fit your health level,
    and give consideration to maintaining proper kind for optimal results.

    Iron out any muscle imbalances with a cable machine exercise or two earlier than they turn into an even bigger problem.
    The cable machine lets you set the pulley at varied heights whereas additionally free motion. With
    the power to change all these variables, it’s less probably you’ll get
    bored along with your training when using the cable machine.

    Collectively, they stabilize the shoulder joint and maintain the ball of the higher arm bone
    securely in the socket of the shoulder blade. They additionally permit for a wider
    vary of shoulder movements while providing
    energy. While we communicate of the shoulder as singular,
    it’s actually a muscle group made up of three smaller muscle heads.


    When your arms are fully prolonged overhead,
    slowly lower your arms again to both aspect of your head.
    After a couple of seconds of holding, slowly return your arms to both aspect of your chest to
    complete one rep. No matter what angle you choose to tug
    the cable from, the quantity of resistance will stay the identical.

    I'm not attempting to scare you or discourage you from utilizing
    free weights, because they make for an excellent workout.

    Alongside the improved mind-muscle connection and
    pumpthat may be elicited by cables, another nice benefit is their versatility,as
    we will see below. You can use the identical piece of apparatus to set up
    giant,compound movements like crossovers and pullovers as you can to set up small,
    isolation actions like cable flys. The Cable Flyes exercise primarily targets the pectoralis main muscular
    tissues, with secondary engagement of extra muscles. As Soon As you’ve mastered
    the essential workouts, don’t hesitate
    to experiment with totally different tempos for each concentric and eccentric phases of
    each motion. This deliberate strategy will allow you to maintain proper
    type while stimulating muscle fibers effectively.
    Experimenting with numerous grips and angles not solely challenges your muscle tissue in new ways but also helps prevent plateaus by stimulating different muscle fibers.

    This approach promotes overall progress and strength gains across your whole
    chest.
    A chest superset workout is a coaching technique
    that involves performing two totally different chest workout routines back-to-back with little
    to no rest in between. The superset technique goals to
    accentuate the exercise and maximize muscle engagement by targeting the chest muscles
    from completely different angles and utilizing various motion patterns.
    A chest superset workout primarily targets the chest muscle tissue, specifically the pectoralis major and minor, and engages the deltoids and triceps as secondary muscles.
    The two main benefits of a chest superset workout are increased muscle activation and time efficiency.

    The exercise begins with the bench press, which lays a
    foundation by working pretty much your complete chest.
    The decline push-up is a variation of the common push-up, by which you’ve positioned your
    ft on an elevation. This makes the train heavier and
    shifts extra of the work in path of your upper chest.

    T push-up is a variation of the standard push-up that provides a rotational movement.

    The compound train primarily targets the chest, shoulders, and triceps.
    It’s top-of-the-line home body weight chest workouts for beginners to do at
    home. Here is an inventory of 15 of one of the best chest exercises with images that may also
    illustrate the exact physique positioning for each transfer.
    You grasp the handles and pull down by way of an arching vary of motion.
    Selecting dumbbells that are suitable in your power and fitness degree and steadily increasing the
    burden as you progress will maintain you from overworking your muscular tissues
    or injuring your self. Guarantee that the
    surface used for support is stable and secure,
    able to withstanding the load and motion without slipping or shifting.
    Remember to hearken to your body, interact in correct warm-up workouts,
    and modify or discontinue any exercise that elicits pain or discomfort.
    Performing chest dips requires you to assist your body weight with straight arms,
    then decrease your body by bending your elbows and pushing again up.

    Use different handlebar attachments to target
    your back from totally different angles. Cables are a fantastic coaching
    tool to build muscle mass and energy and are
    a staple in most training regimens. They are great for inducing muscle pumps and might help pace up
    your workouts. When utilizing cable equipment, be sure that the cables
    are correctly hooked up and in good situation before starting your exercise.
    This will help reduce any potential dangers from malfunctioning equipment throughout your training session. To perform the Cable Standing Squeeze Higher Chest Press, stand in a staggered stance along with your ft
    hip-width aside. Grab the cable handles and position them slightly under shoulder height.


    Keep your ft flat on the ground to focus the effort on your chest,
    and try to arch your back such as you would on a flat bench press.
    Maintain the handles at waist top, pointing downwards, and then pull the cables upwards and
    ahead till they meet in the middle of your chest. Many people use
    dumbbells for flys, but utilizing a cable machine is way
    safer and could be more effective.
    I am now able to carry out workouts I would by no means have attempted by myself
    and continue to see both bodily and psychological gains at the health club.

    Many chest workouts, similar to push-ups and chest dips, may additionally be
    carried out with none gear. Cable chest workout routines are a great addition to your exercise routine, but they shouldn’t substitute conventional chest
    workout routines fully. Standing cable crossover Exercise helps to develop and outline the lower and the Internal pectoral
    muscular tissues. Yes, you can isolate specific areas corresponding to
    your higher chest close to the collarbone with incline flies and work your decrease chest close to
    the breastbone with decline urgent movements.

    For occasion, sets in the range of 6-8 reps with heavy weights give consideration to strength positive aspects, whereas
    sets of reps with average weights stimulate muscle hypertrophy.

    Working out your chest targets two primary muscle teams,
    the pectoralis major and the pectoralis minor.
    The pectoralis main is the larger of the 2 and sits on prime of its smaller
    pectoralis minor counterpart. Chest workouts extend to target peripheral muscle tissue such because the serratus anterior, deltoids, and subclavius.
    Strengthening the peripheral chest muscle tissue
    is necessary for stabilizing joints and bigger muscle
    groups. For occasion, doing a single arm cable fly will not only work
    your chest muscle tissue, but also your core muscles.

    In this publish, we'll present you 15 of one of the best cable chest exercises
    to add into your routine. The cable crunch is
    an incredibly efficient exercise for working
    your abdominals. It keeps fixed pressure on your abs throughout the range of motion, which
    is perfect for building a six-pack. Our finest cable exercises listing is categorized by
    muscle groups and provides focused options for a comprehensive
    exercise.
    In this weblog submit, I Will share with you some of my
    favourite cable chest exercises that you are in a place to do at house or the health club.
    Weight lifters and health lovers know the relevance of continuous muscle
    pressure in workouts. When it involves chest workout routines, cable machines ship this high-end
    tension that’s tough to match with free weights.
    Relying on what variation you use, you possibly can target every
    muscle within the chest by doing push-ups. And whilst you nearly certainly know how to do them, here’s a fast
    how-to anyway. Whereas regular push-ups target the center of your pecs, decline push-ups shift the emphasis to your decrease chest, a troublesome region to apply
    stress to. Proper diet is an integral element
    of maximizing your chest gains. Consuming a balanced food regimen that consists of lean proteins, complicated carbohydrates, and wholesome fats can improve muscle growth and aid in recovery after intense exercises.

    One Other approach to progressively overload is by changing the angle of the pulleys or utilizing different
    attachments to focus on different components of the chest muscle tissue.
    It’s essential to note that with a sophisticated routine comes a greater want for relaxation and restoration.
    But first, let’s begin with the acute variables in your training objectives and
    what you want to know to grow on your fitness
    journey. If you’re going to train like an athlete,
    you’ve got to assume like one, and that means knowing exactly
    what main movers you’re working with. When it comes to chiseling out that defined, athletic chest, dumbbells and barbells may
    seem like the only gear sport on the town but don’t be so fast to evaluate.
    This provides more stability for the shoulder and higher
    pressing energy.
    Remember to start with lighter weights to grasp the technique earlier than progressively rising
    resistance for optimum results. The press and pull are totally different motions that interact distinctive muscles
    within the physique. The range of motion between the
    2 actions in cable chest workouts can higher activate the
    lower or higher chest muscles, depending on the motion. In chest exercises, this could translate to
    more engagement of secondary muscles like the triceps and deltoids.

    There are two major precautions to think about earlier than utilizing compound chest workouts.

    Firstly, it’s crucial to prioritize proper form and method before beginning compound chest workout routines.

    Below is a listing of cable shoulder workout routines
    with descriptions and recommendations on the way to carry out them
    correctly. You work your upper pecs by doing exercises that have you ever moving your arm straight ahead or at a slight upward angle as these will emphasize
    your upper chest fibers. Depending on where you position your elbows, the close-grip bench press is one other flat urgent exercise that works
    your upper chest.
    However as you'll find a way to see, even within the literature there’s lots of particular person variation. If this is
    the case for you, contemplate alternatively using an exercise like the dumbbell bench press.
    It has been proven to have comparable chest activation to
    the barbell bench press however less triceps activation. The
    Incline banded chest press, also referred to as the Low To High Chest Press, is a variation of the
    standard chest press that works the higher chest
    muscular tissues.
    Like flat dumbbell press, incline dumbbell press lets you
    increase the range of motion you’d often use on barbell bench
    press. In 2025, consciousness of damage rates from improper
    fly kind has become more and more important, with
    research indicating that poor method can result
    in shoulder injuries. By avoiding these common pitfalls, you'll have the ability to considerably cut back
    your risk of damage and successfully enhance your higher body strength with a
    chest fly workout. Using the fly machine can help in growing lean physique mass and bone density, along with boosting your base metabolic price.

    With somewhat consideration to detail and management, the cable machine may become one of the helpful pieces of apparatus for effective chest workouts.

    We’ve supplied an excellent mix of compound and isolation workouts that can allow you to work both on your strength and muscle
    hypertrophy. These exercises don’t all have
    to be accomplished on the same day but can be incorporated into your
    upper-body days primarily based on your targets and preferences.
    We’ll additionally go through which muscles each train focuses on, to be able to select what and when to combine into your workouts.
    To actually make issues difficult, shift to a unilateral motion that recruits only
    one arm at a time. Your core muscle tissue will have
    to engage to maintain your body steady and prevent
    your torso from sliding toward the arm getting used to carry out the press.

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